Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
is a blood-borne, sexually transmissible virus (see the image below.)
The virus is typically transmitted via sexual intercourse, shared
intravenous drug paraphernalia, and mother-to-child transmission
(MTCT), which can occur during the birth process or during
breastfeeding.
Electron microscopy of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–1 virions. Courtesy of CDC/Dr. Edwin P. Ewing, Jr. The
most common route of infection varies from country to country and even
among cities, reflecting the population in which HIV was introduced
initially and local practices. Co-infection with other viruses that
share similar routes of transmission, such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C,
and human herpes virus 8 (HHV8; also known as Kaposi sarcoma herpes
virus [KSHV]), is common.
Two distinct species of HIV (HIV-1 and HIV-2) have been identified, and each is composed of multiple subtypes, or clades. All clades of HIV-1 tend to cause similar disease, but the global distribution of the clades differs. This may have implications on any future vaccine, as the B clade, which is predominant in the developed world (where the large pharmaceutical companies are located), is rarely found in the developing countries that are more severely affected by the disease.
HIV-1 probably originated from one or more cross-species transfers from chimpanzees in central Africa.[1] HIV-2 is closely related to viruses that infect sooty mangabeys in western Africa.[2] Genetically, HIV-1 and HIV-2 are superficially similar, but each contains unique genes and its own distinct replication process.
HIV-2 carries a slightly lower risk of transmission, and HIV-2 infection tends to progress more slowly to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). This may be due to a less-aggressive infection rather than a specific property of the virus itself. Persons infected with HIV-2 tend to have a lower viral load than people with HIV-1[3, 4] , and a greater viral load is associated with more rapid progression to AIDS in HIV-1 infections.[5, 6]
HIV-2 is rare in the developed world. Consequently, most of the research and vaccine and drug development has been (perhaps unfairly) focused on HIV-1.
For information on HIV infection in children, see Pediatric HIV.
HIV itself was not identified for another 2 years.[8] During that time, various other causes were considered, including lifestyle factors, chronic drug abuse, and other infectious agents.[9] The HIV epidemic spread rapidly and silently in the absence of testing.
However, clear clinical implications arose before society became aware of the disease; for example, prior to the recognition of HIV, only one case of Pneumocystis pneumonia not clearly associated with immune suppression was diagnosed in the United States between January 1976 and June 1980. In 1981 alone, 42 similar diagnoses were made, and by December 1994, 127,626 cases of Pneumocystis pneumonia with HIV infection as the only identified cause of immune suppression had been reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Also, Kaposi sarcoma is up to 30,000 times more likely to develop in persons with HIV infection than in immunocompetent persons.
The spread of HIV was retrospectively shown to follow the trucking routes across Africa from logging camps, and the bush-meat trade combined with aggressive logging and improved transportation in the mid-20th century may have allowed what was likely occasional cross-species transmission events to propagate across the country and, eventually, the globe.[10]
Such attitudes are inappropriate because HIV is poorly transmissible without sexual contact or blood contact. In addition, the expected survival is long in patients with HIV infection who are receiving treatment. HIV is not transmitted during casual contact and is readily inactivated by simple detergents. Much of the concern regarding HIV infection is due to the incurability of the infection and the relentless immune decline and eventual premature death in the vast majority of infected people.
All of the arguments proposed by these dissenters have been addressed and rebutted in the scientific literature and public discussion and even tested and rejected in the legal system. Nevertheless, they persist, and such views can have extremely harmful effects on people who are exposed to HIV infection unnecessarily or who refuse treatment for their progressing infection.
Clinicians should be aware of these issues, should be able and willing to address misinformation, and should direct their patients to reliable sources of information.
Political denial and inaction have also likely caused considerable damage. Several governments in countries with high HIV infection rates were slow to admit that they had an HIV epidemic, and at least one (South Africa) initially rejected that AIDS was even a problem, then that the disease was caused by HIV infection, and, most recently, that antiretroviral therapy was effective in treating HIV infection and preventing MTCT. Changes have now occurred but have been slow and have cost hundreds of thousands of lives.
A regularly updated reference for addressing AIDS denial and misinformation can be found at AIDSTruth.org.
In the developed world, antiretroviral therapy has greatly improved prognosis and increased survival rates. Public education programs have raised awareness such that testing and prevention of infection are more common. Both of these approaches are difficult in countries with undereducated or underfunded populations.
A thorough discussion of the history of AIDS and the biologic link between HIV and AIDS can be found in an article entitled " The relationship between the human immunodeficiency virus and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome " at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Web site. The document was originally written in September 1995, prior to the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which has significantly improved AIDS-free survival in persons infected with HIV. This version was updated March 2010.
Health care workers who are infected with HIV may be required to divulge their status to their employer or patients and may be restricted in the types of procedures they can perform.
Electron microscopy of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)–1 virions. Courtesy of CDC/Dr. Edwin P. Ewing, Jr. The
most common route of infection varies from country to country and even
among cities, reflecting the population in which HIV was introduced
initially and local practices. Co-infection with other viruses that
share similar routes of transmission, such as hepatitis B, hepatitis C,
and human herpes virus 8 (HHV8; also known as Kaposi sarcoma herpes
virus [KSHV]), is common. Two distinct species of HIV (HIV-1 and HIV-2) have been identified, and each is composed of multiple subtypes, or clades. All clades of HIV-1 tend to cause similar disease, but the global distribution of the clades differs. This may have implications on any future vaccine, as the B clade, which is predominant in the developed world (where the large pharmaceutical companies are located), is rarely found in the developing countries that are more severely affected by the disease.
HIV-1 probably originated from one or more cross-species transfers from chimpanzees in central Africa.[1] HIV-2 is closely related to viruses that infect sooty mangabeys in western Africa.[2] Genetically, HIV-1 and HIV-2 are superficially similar, but each contains unique genes and its own distinct replication process.
HIV-2 carries a slightly lower risk of transmission, and HIV-2 infection tends to progress more slowly to acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). This may be due to a less-aggressive infection rather than a specific property of the virus itself. Persons infected with HIV-2 tend to have a lower viral load than people with HIV-1[3, 4] , and a greater viral load is associated with more rapid progression to AIDS in HIV-1 infections.[5, 6]
HIV-2 is rare in the developed world. Consequently, most of the research and vaccine and drug development has been (perhaps unfairly) focused on HIV-1.
For information on HIV infection in children, see Pediatric HIV.
Initial description and early spread
In the United States, HIV disease was first described in 1981 among 2 groups, one in San Francisco and the other in New York City. Numerous young homosexual men presented with opportunistic infections that, at the time, were typically associated with severe immune deficiency: Pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP) and aggressive Kaposi sarcoma.[7]HIV itself was not identified for another 2 years.[8] During that time, various other causes were considered, including lifestyle factors, chronic drug abuse, and other infectious agents.[9] The HIV epidemic spread rapidly and silently in the absence of testing.
However, clear clinical implications arose before society became aware of the disease; for example, prior to the recognition of HIV, only one case of Pneumocystis pneumonia not clearly associated with immune suppression was diagnosed in the United States between January 1976 and June 1980. In 1981 alone, 42 similar diagnoses were made, and by December 1994, 127,626 cases of Pneumocystis pneumonia with HIV infection as the only identified cause of immune suppression had been reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Also, Kaposi sarcoma is up to 30,000 times more likely to develop in persons with HIV infection than in immunocompetent persons.
The spread of HIV was retrospectively shown to follow the trucking routes across Africa from logging camps, and the bush-meat trade combined with aggressive logging and improved transportation in the mid-20th century may have allowed what was likely occasional cross-species transmission events to propagate across the country and, eventually, the globe.[10]
Stigma of HIV infection
A considerable amount of stigma has been attached to HIV infection, mostly because of the virus's association with sexual acquisition and the inference of sexual promiscuity. Consequences of this stigma have included discrimination and reluctance to be tested for HIV infection. The stigma of HIV infection is also associated with a fear of acquiring a rapidly fatal infection from relatively casual contact.Such attitudes are inappropriate because HIV is poorly transmissible without sexual contact or blood contact. In addition, the expected survival is long in patients with HIV infection who are receiving treatment. HIV is not transmitted during casual contact and is readily inactivated by simple detergents. Much of the concern regarding HIV infection is due to the incurability of the infection and the relentless immune decline and eventual premature death in the vast majority of infected people.
AIDS denialism
A small but vocal minority of people, including some scientists, continue to argue that HIV does not exist, or does not cause AIDS, and that the HIV tests are unreliable or that the therapies are toxic. Such misinformation is usually based on a lack of understanding of the scientific literature, deliberate misrepresentation, or logical fallacies based on pseudoscientific arguments.All of the arguments proposed by these dissenters have been addressed and rebutted in the scientific literature and public discussion and even tested and rejected in the legal system. Nevertheless, they persist, and such views can have extremely harmful effects on people who are exposed to HIV infection unnecessarily or who refuse treatment for their progressing infection.
Clinicians should be aware of these issues, should be able and willing to address misinformation, and should direct their patients to reliable sources of information.
Political denial and inaction have also likely caused considerable damage. Several governments in countries with high HIV infection rates were slow to admit that they had an HIV epidemic, and at least one (South Africa) initially rejected that AIDS was even a problem, then that the disease was caused by HIV infection, and, most recently, that antiretroviral therapy was effective in treating HIV infection and preventing MTCT. Changes have now occurred but have been slow and have cost hundreds of thousands of lives.
A regularly updated reference for addressing AIDS denial and misinformation can be found at AIDSTruth.org.
The quest for understanding of HIV
Since the discovery of HIV and its link to AIDS, great strides have been made in understanding its biology and in developing effective treatments. The difficulty in dealing with HIV on a global scale is largely due to the fact that HIV infection is far more common in resource-poor countries.In the developed world, antiretroviral therapy has greatly improved prognosis and increased survival rates. Public education programs have raised awareness such that testing and prevention of infection are more common. Both of these approaches are difficult in countries with undereducated or underfunded populations.
A thorough discussion of the history of AIDS and the biologic link between HIV and AIDS can be found in an article entitled " The relationship between the human immunodeficiency virus and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome " at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Web site. The document was originally written in September 1995, prior to the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), which has significantly improved AIDS-free survival in persons infected with HIV. This version was updated March 2010.
Patient confidentiality
HIV-related health information is typically considered separate from other health information and may require separate consent to share or divulge.Health care workers who are infected with HIV may be required to divulge their status to their employer or patients and may be restricted in the types of procedures they can perform.
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